Impact case study database

The comprehensive implementation of the CCA into interrogation policy, training and practice has been expedited by two factors. First, the research programmes have been designed and conducted in collaboration with key intelligence government organisations in the US (HIG collaboration since 2010), UK [text removed for publication] and Singapore (MoHA collaboration since 1999). As such, the research has directly reflected, and responded to, beneficiary needs. Second, all these three organisations are responsible for centralised interrogation policy, training and best practice guidelines across all intelligence and law enforcement agencies in their respective countries.

Collaborations with US, UK and Singapore key government organisations have been possible thanks to the value they place on CCA’s ‘ ethical interviewing approach to detecting deception’ (Senior Assistant Director, MoHA, Singapore, S1) , and the fact that it is ‘ informed by strong research evidence’ ( S1). The methods employed by this body of research have also played a crucial role in the sustainability of the collaborations: ‘ Adapting research into real-life settings is often a challenge. However, Prof. Vrij’s and colleagues’ research is typically conducted in relatively naturalistic settings’ (Research Unit Chief, HIG, S2). More importantly, ‘ his [Prof Vrij] openness to assisting the HIG in translating research into practice has been exceptional’ ( S2)

Changes to interrogation policy and best practice guidelines based on CCA since 2014

In the US, the HIG Interrogation Best Practices Guidelines, commissioned by the US Congress and implemented in August 2016, recommend the use of a combination of CCA interviewing techniques (i.e. asking unanticipated questions, drawing a sketch) as best practice to elicit additional information and detect deception in settings ( S3). These Guidelines are based on the FBI Science Report, 2016, citing over 40 of Vrij’s research articles and concluding that ‘ the science points to a cognitive-based (as opposed to an anxiety) approach as the most effective strategy for lie deception’ ( S4).

Although interrogation policy in the UK already adhered strictly to international ethical guidelines, the emphasis ‘on making the research more applicable to the intelligence landscape’, and the fact that ‘ CCA research is highly relevant to, and has been applied in, the work of [text removed for publication] and the broader national security community’ ([text removed for publication] S5), has enabled the seamless implementation of CCA techniques into changes to Border and Aviation interrogation policy in the UK. Additionally, ‘ the use of CCA is recommended [text removed for publication] as best interrogation practice’ ( S5). As in the UK, Singapore’s Ministry of Home Affairs has incorporated CCA into interview protocols at airports. Specifically, the Immigration Checkpoint Authority introduced a revised interview protocol in 2020 that ‘ is closely aligned to the CCA techniques developed by Prof Vrij’ ( S1 ). They estimate that all Singapore’s immigration officers will be trained in this protocol in the next 2 years ( S1).

Incorporation of CCA techniques into training programmes since 2014

To ensure that best practice guidelines and interrogation policy translate into comprehensive changes in interrogation practice, all three government organisations (HIG, [text removed for publication] and Singapore’s MoHA) have introduced CCA training across their intelligence agencies.

In the US, CCA training has been included as a compulsory element in two of the HIG’s interrogation training courses ( S2). Vrij delivered annual training courses for the HIG between 2014 and 2019 (cancelled in 2020 due to COVID-19) to over 1,000 law enforcement and intelligence officers ( S2). CCA training is also compulsory in three of the courses delivered by the US Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). FLETC is a Congressionally-mandated organisation responsible for providing training to all 91 US Federal law enforcement agencies. Since 2014, over 17,000 law enforcement and intelligence officers have been trained on the use of CCA as part of their professional training programmes ( S6).

In Singapore, officer training across all security and law enforcement agencies is undertaken by the Home Team Academy (HTA), the training arm of Singapore’s Ministry of Home Affairs. The HTA have also revised their: ‘ interviewing training programmes to incorporate […] the CCA approach. Since 2014, Vrij has trained over 140 of staff across different agencies, including the police and investigators working in the area of corruption investigations and military security’ (Chief Psychologist, Home Team Academy, Singapore’s MoHA, S7).

Enhanced intelligence and security in the US, UK and South Asia

Building on the changes in interrogation policy and large-scale training, CCA has resulted in enhanced intelligence gathering in a range of security contexts (e.g. terrorism, airports and police). An independent evaluation conducted by a security agency (name withheld) reports that, in the field, the use of CCA techniques led to a 90% lie detection rate in over 60 cases where the veracity of the information could be established ( S8). CCA ‘ enhances our ability to accurately elicit information and assess credibility’ [text removed for publication], ‘ provides high-quality information relating to possible criminal activities by passengers’ (Senior Assistant Director, Singapore’s MoHA, S1) and it is ‘ widely used across our security forces and that its use has had a significant positive impact on operational activities’ (Chief Psychologist, Home Team Academy, Singapore’s MoHA, S7).