Results and submissions : REF 2021

Development of ground truth datasets of controlled substances to understand Global ...

Submitting institution: University of Dundee
Unit of assessment: 12 - Engineering
Summary impact type: Technological
Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014?: No

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1. Summary of the impact

The illicit production and supply of synthetic drugs is one of the largest challenges facing forensic drug chemists, law enforcement agencies, prison services and policy makers globally. Working with multiple law enforcement and forensic science organisations, our research has been directly used to:

Create ground truth datasets underpinning analysis of novel drug samples for forensic laboratories;
Identify and prevent drugs entering Scottish prisons; and
Provide intelligence to the national and international forensic drug community.

2. Underpinning research

The global illicit drug market is complex and diverse. There have been many changes in the last 10 years in particular in regard to the nature of drug types now prevalent across the globe. The rise in the production of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) as a means to circumnavigate existing Global drug legislation has posed serious challenges to forensic drug chemists as they struggle to maintain a knowledge base to identify these novel compounds. The research undertaken at the University of Dundee is novel, distinctive and ground-breaking in three ways.

Firstly, under our Home Office licence we have synthesised a range of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and as a consequence developed a bespoke ground truth dataset of these samples [R1, R2]. These samples have been characterised using a range of analytical techniques which have generated a scientifically robust and reproducible data set which allow for identification in a comprehensive manner. This collection of bespoke and unique samples has facilitated the development of methods to understand the toxicological interpretation of, for example, poly drug use. Our work on similar samples has particular implications for policy development for drug use in wider society by contributing to legislative controls. The data are shared with forensic chemists and forensic toxicologists, through publication and direct data sharing with practitioners.

Secondly, we have co-published a number of research outputs [R3-R5] with colleagues in the Scottish Prison Service (SPS) which address the characterisation of constantly changing synthetic drugs known as synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), often referred to as ‘spice’. Their use results in high levels of disruption to normal prison life and results in unpredictable harms to prisoners. SCRAs are dissolved in volatile solvents and soaked into paper, card or clothing and are sent into prisons via the mail system where they are then placed in e-cigarettes and vaped. Many of these compounds circumvent the existing drug legislation and pose a significant risk to the drug user population because their potency and effects are largely unknown. The research has generated a comprehensive dataset of analytical information which characterises samples prepared using all 8 currently known clandestine methods for the synthesis of methamphetamine and 5 clandestine methods for the synthesis of ecstasy (in excess of 250 bespoke materials). We have also generated characterisation data for a range of NPS samples which include fentanyls, synthetic cannabinoids and cathinone derivatives.

Finally, given our research base we developed early published methods for the analysis of emerging NPS compounds and were commissioned to author the first United Nations guidance for the analysis of these compounds using the analytical method developed by NicDaeid and this remains a UN recommended analysis in the second edition of the guidance translated into 5 languages [R6].

3. References to the research

[R1] McKenzie, C, Sutcliffe, OB, Read, K, Scullion, S, Epemolu, R, Fletcher, D, Helander, A, Beck, O, Rylski, A, Antonides, L, Riley, J, Smith, S & Nic Daeid, N (2018) 'Chemical synthesis, characterisation and in vitro and in vivo metabolism of the synthetic opioid MT-45 and its newly identified fluorinated analogue 2F-MT-45 with metabolite confirmation in urine samples from known drug users', Forensic Toxicology, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 359-374. DOI: 10.1007/s11419-018-0413-1

[R2] Antonides, LH, Cannaert, A, Norman, C, Vives, L, Harrison, A, Costello, A, Nic Daeid, N, Stove, C, Sutcliffe, O & McKenzie, C (2019) 'Enantiospecific synthesis, chiral separation and biological activity of four indazole-3-carboxamide-type synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their detection in seized drug samples', Frontiers in Chemistry, vol. 7, 321, pp. 1-20. DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00321

[R3] Norman, C, Walker, G, McKirdy, B, Mcdonald, C, Fletcher, D, Antonides, LH, Sutcliffe, OB, Nic Daeid, N & McKenzie, C (2020) 'Detection and quantitation of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in infused papers from prisons in a constantly evolving illicit market', Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 538-554. DOI:  10.1002/dta.2767

[R4] Antonides, LH, Cannaert, A, Norman, C, Nic Daeid, N, Sutcliffe, OB, Stove, CP & McKenzie, C 2020, 'Shape Matters: The Application of Activity‐Based In Vitro Bioassays and Chiral Profiling to the Pharmacological Evaluation of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists in Drug‐Infused Papers Seized in Prisons', Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 628-643. DOI: 10.1002/dta.2965

[R5] Norman, C, Mckirdy, B, Walker, G, Dugard, P, Nic Daéid, N & Mckenzie, C (2021*) 'Large‐scale evaluation of ion mobility spectrometry for the rapid detection of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in infused papers in prisons', Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 644-663. DOI: 10.1002/dta.2945

[*First published 15 October 2020]

[R6] United Nations. Office on Drugs and Crime (2020). Recommended methods for the Identification and Analysis of Synthetic Cathinones in Seized Materials, Vienna: United Nations, ST/NAR/49-Rev.1. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/scientists/recommended-methods-for-the-identification-and-analysis-of-synthetic-cathinones-in-seized-materials.html [Accessed 19 March 2021].

4. Details of the impact

The overarching impact of this research lies in the enhancement of the capabilities of law enforcement agencies and forensic providers to deal with matters relating to (1) understanding illicit drug production; (2) drug detection in the field and specifically within prisons; and (3) influencing of policy and analytical processes to facilitate the understanding and analysis of new and emerging drug compounds nationally and internationally through interactions with organisations such as the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).

4.1. The development of ground truth datasets underpinning analysis of novel drug samples by forensic chemists: The chemical nature of NPS samples changes on a regular basis making their identification challenging for forensic chemists. It also means that the provision of standard reference materials used to confirm the identity of seized samples are often not available when the samples are seized and that the toxicological analysis of emerging NPS is largely unknown. The expertise of the team has generated comprehensive analytical information enabling the identification of novel SCRA compounds which are then submitted to the national and international drug early warning systems.

This work has:

enabled the markers for specific ways of making the drug compounds to be identified and has been used in casework for the corroboration of synthetic methods;
facilitated the identification of illicit materials at point of response within the Scottish Prison Service using Rapiscan libraries validated by the University of Dundee team [E5, E7];
provided characterisation information for drug compounds and metabolites particularly for the metabolism of polydrug use (where more than one drug is ingested at the same time). This data has been used for example, by the Karolinska Institute in Sweden (Sweden’s top University and one of the most respected medical institutes globally and host to the Nobel Assembly) to inform the re-analysis of existing postmortem samples where our identified metabolites were subsequently indicated, confirming a particular compound had been ingested [R1,R3];
provided information on novel drug compounds to the UK and international early warning systems collated by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug abuse (EMCDDA), the World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Early warning systems provide information to front line forensic drug chemists to aid in the identification of new compounds where standard reference samples may not be available:

To date, data from the Project has been cited in the critical review documents prepared by the World Health Organisation (WHO), leading to the global ban [on the] production and export of two SCRAs (5F-MDMB-PICA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA). [E5, E8, E9]

4.2. The development of new understanding of drug use in prisons: There are 17 prisons in Scotland housing approximately 7,500 inmates in 2020 and approximately 40% of prisoners admitted to drug use (2017 figures). We have established a strong relationship with the Scottish Prison Service, leading to the development of evidence-led intelligence to support operational decision making. This includes the development of protocols for safe handling of prison mail by prison officers and the development of sampling methodologies for prison mail, as well as other procedures such as cell entry:

It has helped to provide an evidence base for the safety procedures to adopt in cell entry, searching and post room screening procedures [E6].

The research has also formed the basis for understanding the health implications to prison officers in regard to exposure to NPS materials, helping to define new safety procedures within UK prisons – these have been described by the prison service as “ invaluable, particularly at a time when staff concerns were heightened around the impact on their well-being” [E5].

We have analysed samples seized within Scottish prisons since June 2018. As of the 25^th August 2020 more than 800 samples from 543 separate drug seizures have been received for testing with 62.6% of samples testing positive for SCRAs. Often SCRAs detected in papers are present as mixtures of two, three or, on one occasion four SCRAs. This work has allowed us to undertake trend predictions for SPS, identify and report new drug materials and expand the work to include the detection and monitoring of novel benzodiazepines in a prison context as they emerge [E7]. Several emerging SCRAs were detected for the first time in Scottish prisons between May 2020 and August 2020 as a result of routine monitoring and our collaboration has facilitated a highly reactive response to emerging drug threats and to operational matters relating to drug detection:

Understanding local, national and international trends in the SCRA market is essential in ensuring the continued effectiveness of… systems to detect emerging drugs in prisons. The work… pre-empts the appearance of new drugs which might not alarm on the detection systems in future. Without the collaboration with University of Dundee, SPS would effectively be running… ‘blind’ in a drug market that changes rapidly [E5].

As a consequence of the knowledge gained, we have also worked directly with Rapiscan, the company which provides screening technology to the SPS, validating their equipment and updating their internal instrumental libraries with research generated data so that they are deployable within the Scottish prisons with accurate data. This ongoing relationship has enabled continued use of our research expertise in the monitoring of samples entering the Scottish prison service.

The data arising from the project has greatly increased understanding of the illicit drug market operating within prisons in Scotland and provides timely and important drug trend monitoring data to national and international agencies... this project has supported the reduction in drug supply in SPS establishments, supported increased investment in drug detection technologies in Scottish prisons and has allowed the effectiveness of such technologies to be continually assessed in an evolving drug market. [E5]

4.3. The development of international guidance documents for the UNODC: As a result of the research profile in the area of NPS drug identification, NicDaeid was invited to develop the original analytical guidance and protocols for the characterisation of synthetic cathinones issued by the UNODC. The manual was revised and republished in 2020 where the Dundee method was endorsed by international reviewers. The UNODC manuals are developed by ‘ scientific experts recognised for their exceptional contribution to knowledge and/or the promotion of best practice in the area of interest’ and are provided for free by the UNODC to forensic science laboratories across the 193 member states of the UN as the accepted industry standard. The revised guidance manual, ‘UNODC Recommended Methods for the Analysis of Synthetic Cathinones in Seized Materials’, was published in 2020 [E4] and is available in the UN recommended languages, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish [R6].

As a result of her research and expertise NicDaeid was invited onto the international panel of forensic experts for the UNODC. This panel is made up of a small number of subject matter experts from around the world who assist and advise the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in relation to the International Quality Assurance Programme, the International Collaborative Exercises (ICE) programme and the UNODC publications for forensic analysts and practitioners.

McKenzie sits on the Advisory Council for the Misuse of Drugs drug early warning and monitoring panel and on Scottish and UK expert groups on drug use and secondary exposure to psychoactive drugs in prisons, both of which inform the development of policy directives.

NicDaeid is a commissioner and vice chair of the Dundee Drug Deaths Commission which reports directly to the Scottish Government Drugs Deaths Taskforce feeding directly into drugs policy [E1, E2, E3]. Evidence relating to the use of illicit drugs in Dundee informs the work of the Commission, in particular the factual ground truth dataset which underpins and corroborates the lived experience of drug users within Dundee. She is also an appointed forensic expert advisor to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime which advises on and assesses the international collaborative trials implemented by the United Nations across its 193-member state countries.

Improving fire scene investigation for practitioners

Submitting institution: University of Dundee
Unit of assessment: 12 - Engineering
Summary impact type: Legal
Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014?: No

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1. Summary of the impact

Pioneering research in the area of fire scene investigation has underpinned the development of analytical techniques and has provided validation of these techniques for the fire investigation community. The research has led to impacts in the UK and beyond, including:

The co-development (with professional bodies) of two major Codes of Practice that have been adopted and endorsed by all 43 Police forces and fire teams across the UK, and are used by operational fire investigators across Europe. Subsequent changes to the Criminal Procedure Rules and Practice Directions (2017) require expert witnesses in England and Wales to adhere to these standards of practice adopted by their professional bodies;
The development of Best Practice Manuals, Codes of Practice and related training to Nordic countries, ensuring consistency of professional processes and scientific robustness in the investigation of fires.

2. Underpinning research

In the year 2019/2020, the national fire statistics recorded 180,683 fires attended by the fire and rescue services in the UK (including 26,726 in Scotland). Of these, approximately 46% were deliberately ignited. Fire investigation is carried out by practitioners from a range of different agencies and backgrounds, which can lead to a variability of training and experience as practitioners work to different operational and scientific standards. The importance of underpinning research for fire scene investigation has been widely accepted and is established in a range of documents including, but not limited to, reports from the National Academy of Science in the United States and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Nic Daeid has established research expertise in the area of fire scene investigation. Building on earlier work focusing on the investigation of electrical fires (conducted at the University of Strathclyde), her work at the University of Dundee (since 2014) has continued with a particular focus on fire engineering and the built environment in respect of the exposure of concrete to fire.

Understanding how the built environment responds to fire – for example, the failures in concrete structures and electrical systems as a result of thermal stresses and damage experienced under fire conditions – is critical to interpreting the resultant fire scene and the determination of the origin, cause and spread of the fire. Similarly, the chemical analysis of fire debris samples and the interpretation of the analytical results facilitated by ground-truth datasets of known provenance enable the confirmation (or otherwise) of the presence of ignitable liquids in samples recovered from fire scenes to be undertaken.

Nic Daeid’s recent work has addressed how the built environment (concrete in particular) reacts to the stresses associated with real fire scenarios and what investigative approaches can be taken in regard to the analysis of fire-stressed concrete [R1, R2]. This research studied, for the first time, bespoke mixes of concrete rather than standard Portland cement which had previously been the default mix for such work. Her work has created a comprehensive ground-truth data set of a range of characterising measurements including the validation of handheld field-deployable instrumentation.

The chemical analysis of fire debris is an essential part of the fire scene to laboratory process where chemical analysis is used to explore the presence or absence of ignitable liquid residues in fire debris. In 2015, Nic Daeid was part of the team that secured EU commission funding (EU Add Fuel HOME/2013/ISEC/MO/ENFSI/4000005962) for the development of ignitable-liquid databases used in the interpretation of fire-debris analysis in collaboration with fire investigation practitioners in Europe, ultimately generating an online searchable dataset ( https://ncfs.ucf.edu/internationaldb/index.php?design=ILRC1). Independently, she has published a set of ground-truth datasets of ignitable liquids and evaporated ignitable liquids for interpretation purpose.

These areas are specifically referenced in Section 5.2 of the Code of Practice for Investigators of Fires and Explosions for the justice systems in the UK, 2020 [E1], discussed further in section 4.

4. Details of the impact

Nic Daeid’s research has led to impact in terms of operational practice for fire investigators. The work has led to two major Codes of Practice that have been adopted and endorsed by professional bodies in the UK and by fire investigators across Europe, with further changes affecting the standards and requirements for fire scene investigators working within the criminal justice system of England and Wales.

Development and endorsement of the Code of Practice

The subjective nature of fire scene investigation is challenging within the justice process. The lack of consistency across operational and scientific standards, and across analytical techniques employed by fire investigators, has the potential to lead to haphazard implementation of practice and potential miscarriages of justice.

Recognising this challenge, Nic Daeid led an interdisciplinary and multiagency team of practitioners from the public and private sector in the UK to develop a UK Code of Practice, setting out best practice for those involved in fire investigation. Participants included fire investigators from the private sector (Hawkins & Associates Ltd, Fire Investigations (UK) LLP, Prometheus Forensic Services, BRE Group), the public sector (Forensic Science Northern Ireland, Fire and Rescue Service Northern Ireland, Hertfordshire Constabulary, Scottish Police Authority Forensic Services, Scottish Fire and Rescue Service, Chief Fire Officers Association) and professional bodies (Institution of Fire Engineers and the UK Association of Fire Investigators). The resultant Code of Practice underwent a national consultation involving UK Police forces and Fire and Rescue Services, private-sector organisations and professional bodies. It was subsequently endorsed by the Chief Fire Officers Association (CFOA) – now the National Fire Chief’s Committee (NFCC) – the Institute of Fire Engineers (IFE) and the UK Association of Fire Investigators (UKAFI), the latter being the two professional bodies for fire engineers and fire scene investigators, respectively.

Following its endorsement, the Code of Practice was published in 2017 [E1] and has subsequently been revised (2020) to cover all fire investigations in both criminal and civil courts.

The Code of Practice is used by fire investigators across the UK and for the first time sets out, in a single UK document, industry-led best practice for the fire investigation community. The content of this document is fundamental to the development and implementation of quality standards for fire investigation.” [E2]

It is described as:

“…a critical document as experts are bound to adhering to it through their responsibilities to the courts as laid out in the Criminal Procedures Rules Practice directions… The Code of Practice is used by fire investigators across the UK.” [E3]

The Code of Practice and the methodology laid out within were referred to in the popular crime scene drama TRACES, based on the University of Dundee team. TRACES debuted on the TV channel Alibi in December 2019, exposing the methodological approach to an audience of 140,000 viewers, and was subsequently shown on BBC 1 in January 2021.

The significance of the code is underpinned by related changes to the Criminal Procedure Rules and Practice Directions (CPR, 2017, as amended) issued by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales [E4]. The CPR now states that expert witnesses must adhere to the individual Codes of Practice of their professional bodies, thus making compliance mandatory across the practitioner communities working within the criminal justice system of England and Wales.

These changes have implications for access to justice by ensuring systematic and consistent approaches to the investigation of fire scenes and for making sure that “ the needs of the UK judiciary are properly met” [E3].

Establishing and extending best practice

The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes Fire and Explosion Investigation Working Group (ENFSI FEIWG) is made up of representation from 70 forensic science institutes across Europe. Nic Daeid chaired the fire and explosion investigation working group (2011-2015) and, with Hackman (Dundee) and other European colleagues, led the development of the ENFSI FEIWG best practice manual in fire and explosion investigation [E5]. This document amalgamates previous European guidance documents developed collectively by the ENFSI FEIWG into a single document, providing guidance in the domain at a European level.

The ENFSI FEIWG best practice manual [E5] has been adopted and published by the ENFSI community; it forms the basis of a new online training course created in 2020 by Nic Daeid and ENFSI colleagues for 50 participants from 22 European countries. The ENFSI manual has also been used to underpin the development of new systems of training and operational practice in the Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark) across their forensic science services and fire investigation provision [E6].

The Code of Practice for Investigators of Fires and Explosions for the justice systems in the UK [E1] and the Nordic manual [E6] are two of the reference guides listed by the Office of the Forensic Science Regulator in the recent tender document [E7] for the amendment to the FSR Code of Practice and Conduct for forensic practitioners, with which all fire science investigators in England and Wales must comply.

SpaceWire and SpaceFibre

Submitting institution: University of Dundee
Unit of assessment: 12 - Engineering
Summary impact type: Technological
Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014?: No

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1. Summary of the impact

SpaceWire is a data-handling network for use onboard spacecraft. Dundee, funded by the European Space Agency (ESA), led the research, designed important SpaceWire chips, and, with inputs from international engineers, wrote the standard document [R1]. Today, SpaceWire is ubiquitous technology for commercial telecommunications, global-positioning, weather, environmental-monitoring, scientific and exploration space missions, collectively worth over $40 billion [E1]. The valuable data gathered by these missions are collected by SpaceWire onboard the spacecraft. Further research has underpinned the development of SpaceFibre, the next generation network with 10-100 times the data-rate and novel high-availability capabilities. SpaceFibre is now being designed into equipment for future demanding space missions.

2. Underpinning research

Parkes authored the first SpaceWire standard in 2003, with inputs from international engineers. Research continued through the current REF period [R2] culminating in the publication of a revision of the SpaceWire standard ECSS-E-ST-50-12C-Rev1 [R1]. The ECSS-E standards define technology to be used onboard spacecraft precisely and in sufficient detail to ensure interoperability between equipment from different manufacturers. Compliance to these standards is mandated in the specification of many spacecraft.

A new generation of SpaceWire technology, SpaceFibre, has been created with 10 to 100 times the performance of SpaceWire, versatile in-built quality of service and unique fault detection, isolation and recovery capabilities. The SpaceFibre standard was written by Parkes with major inputs from STAR-Dundee, a spin-out company from the University of Dundee, and other contributions from ESA, NASA, RosCosmos, St. Petersburg University of Aerospace Instrumentation (SUAI), Airbus and other international organisations.

The University of Dundee, together with STAR-Dundee, carried out the research on the standard, devising protocols, carrying out simulations to support trade-offs of alternative solutions, and implementing and testing the SpaceFibre in hardware [a, b]. The European Commission Framework 7 “Very High-Speed Serial Interfaces (VHiSSI)” project [c], researched and developed the first prototype SpaceFibre Interface Chip with the University of Dundee, STAR-Dundee, Ramon Chips, IHP, ACE-IC, Airbus DS and Synergie CAD Instruments. The SpaceWire-RT and VHiSSI projects proved the feasibility of key parts of single-lane SpaceFibre.

Subsequent research was mainly funded by STAR-Dundee and the UK Space Agency through three National Space Technology Programme activities [e, f, g], in particular SUNRISE which researched, designed and proved the network layer for SpaceFibre, implementing for the first time a SpaceFibre routing switch in commercial and radiation tolerant chip technology.

From 2011 to 2015 the SpaceFibre was designed with ESA funding [a, d] and with EC funding [b, c]. The results of this research were reported in [R3].
From 2014 to 2016 SpaceFibre was extended to multi-lane operation giving enhanced data-rates, funded by STAR-Dundee [R4]. This is similar to the multiple lanes of a motorway providing for a higher density of traffic but provides unique error recovery capabilities.
From 2014 to 2020 research on complete SpaceFibre networks was funded by the UK Space Agency [e, f, g] and EC [h] with a focus on routing switch design and application architectures [R5].

The SpaceFibre standard has been simulated, implemented and extensively reviewed at all stages of its research, design and development. The ECSS SpaceFibre Working Group was first convened in September 2015, starting work by formally reviewing draft H1 v14 of the SpaceFibre standard. The Group members carried out several detailed reviews of the SpaceFibre standard specification and the ECSS Secretariat provided advice, guidance and support in the drafting of the formal specification. The standard was sent out for public review in 2018. Parkes, as the standard editor, addressed all the comments from the public review and the completed standard was finally passed to ECSS for publication [R6]. SpaceFibre has recently been incorporated into the latest revision of the American National Standards Institute ANSI/VITA-78 SpaceVPX standard for spacecraft electronic processing units [E2].

3. References to the research

[R1] European Cooperation for Space Standardization (2019) SpaceWire: Links, nodes, routers and networks. European Cooperation for Space Standardization, Noordwijk. Available at: https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-e-st-50-12c-rev-1-spacewire-links-nodes-routers-and-networks-15-may-2019/. [Accessed 19 March 2021]

[R2] Parkes, S, Armbruster, P & Suess, M (2011) 'Well connected: the SpaceWire on-board data-handling network', ESA Bulletin, vol. 2011, no. 145, pp. 35-45. Available at: https://esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/publications/ESA-Bulletin-145/ESA-Bulletin-145.pdf [Accessed 19 March 2021].

[R3] Parkes, SS, McClements, C, McLaren, D, Ferrer Florit, A & Villafranca, AG (2015) SpaceFibre: a multi-Gigabit/s interconnect for spacecraft onboard data handling. in 2015 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings. IEEE Computer Society, pp. 1-13, 2015 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, United States, 7/03/15. DOI: 10.1109/AERO.2015.7119317.

[R4] Ferrer Florit, A, Gonzalez-Villafranca, A & Parkes, S (2016) SpaceFibre multi-lane: SpaceFibre, long paper. in 2016 International SpaceWire Conference (SpaceWire): Proceedings of the 7th International SpaceWire Conference. IEEE, pp. 1-8, International SpaceWire Conference 2016, Yokohama, Japan, 25/10/17. DOI: 10.1109/SpaceWire.2016.7771647.

[R5] Parkes, S, Ferrer Florit, A, Gonzalez-Villafranca, A, McClements, C & McLaren, D (2017) SpaceFibre Network and Routing Switch. in 2017 IEEE Aerospace Conference. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, United States, pp. 1-7, 2017 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, United States, 4/03/17. DOI: 10.1109/AERO.2017.7943805.

[R6] European Cooperation for Space Standardization (2019), “ SpaceFibre: Very high-speed serial link. European Cooperation for Space Standardization, Noordwijk. Available from https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-e-st-50-11c-spacefibre-very-high-speed-serial-link [Accessed 19 March 2021].

The research on SpaceFibre at the University of Dundee was funded mainly by the European Commission (EC), STAR-Dundee, European Space Agency (ESA) and UK Space Agency. Specific research contracts related to SpaceFibre are listed below. [text removed for publication]. The prime contractor was University of Dundee except where an organisation name is given after the name of the funding body, e.g. ESA/Airbus GmbH.

[a] Parkes, SpaceFibre Demonstrator, ESA (2011-2019): [text removed for publication]

[b] Parkes, SpaceWire-RT, EC (2010-2012): [text removed for publication]

[c] Parkes, Very High Speed Serial Interface (VHiSSI), EU (2011-2014): [text removed for publication]

[d] [text removed for publication]

[e] Parkes, SpaceFibre Universal Network Router for Integrating Spacecraft Equipment (SUNRISE), UK Space Agency/STAR-Dundee (2014-2017): [text removed for publication]

[f] Parkes, SpaceFibre-VPX, UK Space Agency/STAR-Dundee (2016-2018): [text removed for publication]

[g] Parkes, SpaceDSP, UK Space Agency/STAR-Dundee (2016-2018): [text removed for publication]

[h] Parkes, Hi-FLY, EC H2020/Airbus GmbH (2018-2019): [text removed for publication]. Parkes led the System Design Board for this collaboration comprising Airbus Germany (mass memory), Airbus France (compression processor), DLR (optical downlink), Tesat (RF downlink), STAR-Dundee (SpaceVPX payload data processor), University of Dundee (interconnection network architecture) and other partners.

4. Details of the impact

SpaceWire:

“SpaceWire is the industry standard protocol for command, control, telemetry and low-mid rate data communications in satellites and space vehicles. It has become ubiquitous thanks to the superlative engineering work undertaken at the University [of Dundee]” [E9].

SpaceWire is an electronic network technology used onboard spacecraft to connect the payload instruments to the onboard data-handling system; it is “one of [the] indispensable technology for satellites” [E10], carrying critical payload data in many space missions. Thirty spacecraft using SpaceWire with a combined mission cost of $40bn are listed in two tables below. There are many more spacecraft using SpaceWire: “The total of $50billion (€40 billion) stays on the conservative side” [E1].

| Operational missions | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mission name | Mission type | Launch date | Mission cost | | USA GOES-R series | Geostationary weather monitoring | 2017 (1^st satellite) | US$10.8bn | | European Sentinel | Environmental monitoring | 1A (2014), 1B & 3A (2016), 3B (2018), 5-precusor (2017) 6A (2020) | €7.2bn | | Inmarsat-4A F4 | Geostationary communications | 2013 | €598m | | GAIA (ESA) | Astronomy (mapping of the galaxy) | 2013 | €740m | | Bepicolombo (ESA, JAXA) | Planetary exploration (mission to Mercury, comprising two probes) | 2018 | €3bn | | Chinese Feng Yun 4 | 7x weather satellites | 2016 (1^st satellite) | unknown |

| Missions under development with SpaceWire embedded in the design | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mission name | Operation type | Details | Mission cost | | European MetOp (2^nd Generation) | 6x Meteorological satellites | Launch of 1^st satellite expected 2021, with life span of 8.5 yrs; overall mission duration 21 yrs | €3.4bn | | European MetOp (3^rd Generation) | 6x Meteorological satellites | Successor to the Metop 2^nd Generation series currently being developed | €1.7bn | | James Webb Space Telescope, NASA | Astronomy - investigation of the formation of the universe | Launch expected in 2021 | US$10.7bn |

The SpaceWire routing chip, a key component of a SpaceWire network, which was designed by the University of Dundee with Ruag Space and manufactured and sold by Atmel/Microchip, has been used on many space missions. [text removed for publication].

STAR-Dundee is a successful aerospace company that spun out of the University in 2002, underpinned by and founded to commercialise the SpaceWire and later SpaceFibre technology research of the University “The University’s research has underpinned the success of STAR-Dundee” [E5]. STAR-Dundee was awarded the Scottish Business of the Year award (under 25 employees) in 2014 [E4]. Its customers include leading international aerospace companies and space agencies [text removed for publication].

Parkes, now full-time CTO of STAR-Dundee, was awarded the Fletcher of Saltoun Award for 2019 by the Saltire Society for his “exceptional contribution to Science not only in Scotland but internationally” [E6].

SpaceFibre:

While the impact of SpaceWire [R1,R2] has grown substantially, the Dundee team and STAR-Dundee have been designing the next generation of SpaceWire technology, SpaceFibre [R3,R4,R5,R6], which has 10 to 100 times the performance of a SpaceWire link, innovative in-built quality of service (QoS) and novel fault detection, isolation and recovery (FDIR) capabilities. SpaceFibre runs over electrical or fibre-optic cables and provides a high-availability network technology for spaceflight applications. Its low-latency broadcast-message capability enables the distribution of spacecraft time, synchronisation information, event signals, fault reports, replacing separate interconnections. Its virtual channels enable independent traffic flows which can be provided with a reserved bandwidth, a priority and a schedule. The bandwidth reservation identifies and isolates faulty nodes that start to babble, and the priority and scheduling enable data delivery at specific times to support control applications. SpaceFibre simplifies the system engineering, improves reliability, reduces mass, and meets the very high data-rate requirements of future high-resolution, radar and optical Earth-observation missions.

In preparation for this new class of missions SpaceFibre has already been designed into the extremely high-performance Ramon Chip RC64 radiation tolerant processor [text removed for publication]. Manufactured in 2017, the RC64 incorporated twelve SpaceFibre interfaces for communications and is “currently being designed into its first spaceflight mission” [E7].

[text removed for publication]

SpaceFibre chip designs for the Microchip RTG4 field programmable gate array have been designed by STAR-Dundee and radiation tested in preparation for use in future space missions. “From Microchip’s perspective, this [SpaceWire and SpaceFibre] is a key enabling technology” [E9]. SpaceFibre designs have also been implemented in other chips from several companies.

SpaceWire is an integral part of the American National Standards Institute VITA-78 SpaceVPX standard for spaceflight electronic processing systems and SpaceFibre is included in the forthcoming update. “SpaceFibre’s utility opened new markets… Now SpaceFibre is an integral part of the SpaceVPX standard” [E2].

SpaceFibre is being used by ESA, DLR, Airbus, Thales-Alenia Space and others in Europe, in ISS-Reshetnev, ELVEES, and SUAI in Russia, NEC in Japan [E10], NASA and leading aerospace companies in USA. The first spaceflight missions of SpaceFibre took place in 2020 on experimental spacecraft.

The development of high value alloys and manufacturing techniques for automotive ...

Submitting institution: University of Dundee
Unit of assessment: 12 - Engineering
Summary impact type: Technological
Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014?: No

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1. Summary of the impact

Rautomead develop, design and provide unique continuous casting equipment for the non-ferrous and precious metals industries globally. A partnership with the University of Dundee has led to the development of new alloys with reduced costs, simplification of manufacturing processes and shorter lead-times. This allowed Rautomead’s customers to enter or develop new markets across the world. The partnership has also enabled Rautomead to substantially improve quality, resulting in reduced risk of consumer returns and the protection of the Rautomead brand. These research-based outcomes represent a multimillion-pound saving for the company.

2. Underpinning research

Prior to its involvement with the University of Dundee (UoD), Rautomead product and process development was largely empirically based, utilising its in-house facilities and the expertise and experience of its staff. Since October 2011, the company has worked extensively with UoD in its research and development (R&D) efforts, with activities including materials characterisation and development work. Research into materials characterisation is of paramount importance to Rautomead since this is the process by which the physical, chemical and/or structural properties of alloys are determined. This work was enabled through an Innovate UK award led by Professor Amin Abdolvand (Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) Grant number: 8747), a KTP Associate (2012-2014), and two subsequent Technology Support Agreements (2014-2017 and 2017-2020).

The KTP project was key in crystallising the R&D activities between the two organisations with set objectives and commercial goals. The aim was to process new complex high-performance alloys by improving the capability and performance of continuous casting machinery (Figure 1). This initiative with a modest budget (£95k – 50% Innovate UK and 50% Scottish Funding Council) led to a substantial multimillion end value achieved as noted in section 4 and also outlined in the attached Letter of Support from the company [E1].

The key underpinning research activities were experimental in nature:

The addition of lead (Pb) to brass (alloy of copper and zinc) increased its machinability and corrosion resistance, enabling its applications in marine environments (to prevent biofouling) and as electrical cabling within wind turbines for renewable energy applications. The research performed within [R1] demonstrated the unique horizontal-setup processing conditions which enabled the casting of high-volume, high-quality (characterised by a high homogeneity), Pb-brass alloy at Rautomead, leading on to the development and commercialisation of Pb-brass casting equipment.
Improvement to the copper (Cu) alloy casting quality was demonstrated within [R2], indicated by increases to material elongation and a smaller metal grain structure. This was obtained from an investigation into the processing parameters such as the cooling fluid flow (influencing metal cooling) and the casting withdraw rate (which influences the product yield). The research enabled improvements in the efficiency of casting equipment used in the fabrication of copper-tin-phosphorus (Cu-Sn-P) that is applied for corrosion resistance marine applications; oxygen-free-Cu which is used for electrical high data rate transmission cabling; and copper-zinc (Cu-Zn) used in electronics applications. Collectively the research contributed to the commercialisation of the casting equipment for these alloys by Rautomead.
Further investigations into casting speed were made to identify casting improvements for the alloys of copper and magnesium (Cu-Mg) applied in high-speed rail trolley cabling and aluminium-brass (Al-brass) which is used in subsea and propeller construction [R3]. Alterations to the casting withdrawal pulse setting were applied (for control of material quality), in order to identify improved material performance and casting conditions. The research enabled Rautomead to reduce manufacturing turnaround for the alloys leading to the commercialisation of new casting equipment.

In summary, the underpinning research on the development of high value alloys established and consolidated strong links with Rautomead. The research enabled the transfer of new concepts and technology from laboratory into the manufacturing process. Material characterisation is now part of the company’s “customer experience”, particularly where new alloys are casted. This has assisted Rautomead in maintaining their international visibility [e.g. R4-R6] and market leading position for non-ferrous alloys.

Figure 1. Schematic of continuous Rod casting machine. Rautomead sells between 5 and 10 machines per year [E1]. Image courtesy of Rautomead.

3. References to the research

[R1] Bagherian, E-R, Fan, Y, Cooper, M, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2016) 'Investigation of the distribution of lead in three different combinations of brass feedstock', International Journal of Metalcasting, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 322-328. DOI: 10.1007/s40962-016-0055-1

[R2] Bagherian, E-R, Fan, Y, Cooper, M, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2016) 'Effect of water flow rate, casting speed, alloying elements and pull distance on tensile strength, elongation percentage and microstructure of continuous cast copper alloys', Metallurgical Research and Technology, vol. 113, no. 3, 308. DOI: 10.1051/metal/2016006

[R3] Bagherian, E-R, Fan, Y, Cooper, M, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2016) 'Effect of melt temperature, cleanout cycle, continuous casting direction (horizontal/vertical) and super-cooler size on tensile strength, elongation percentage and microstructure of continuous cast copper alloys', Metallurgical Research and Technology, vol. 113, no. 5, 502. DOI: 10.1051/metal/2016030

[R4] Bagherian, E-R, Bell, C, Cooper, M, Fan, Y, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2014) Influence of casting speed on the structure and mechanical properties of continuous cast DHP copper tube. in METAL 2014: 23rd International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, Conference Proceedings. TANGER Ltd., pp. 1163-1168, 23rd International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, Brno, Czech Republic, 21/05/14. Available at: http://metal2013.tanger.cz/files/proceedings/17/reports/2437.pdf

[R5] Bagherian, ER, Fan, Y, Cooper, M, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2016) Effect of antimony addition relative to microstructure and mechanical properties of continuous cast lead alloy. in METAL 2016: 25th Anniversary International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials. TANGER Ltd., pp. 1294-1300, 25th International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials METAL 2016, Brno, Czech Republic, 25/05/16. Available at: https://www.confer.cz/metal/2016/1792-effect-of-antimony-addition-relative-to-microstructure-and-mechanical-properties-of-continous-cast-lead-alloy [Accessed 19 March 2021].

[R6] Bagherian, ER, Fan, Y, Cooper, M, Frame, B & Abdolvand, A (2016) Analysis and quantification of mechanical properties of various DHP copper tubes manufacturing processes using drift expanding test. in METAL 2016 - 25th Anniversary International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, Conference Proceedings. TANGER Ltd., pp. 1345-1350, 25th International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials, METAL 2016, Brno, Czech Republic, 25/05/16. Available at: https://www.confer.cz/metal/2016/1957-analysis-and-quantification-of-mechanical-properties-of-various-dhp-copper-tubes-manufacturing-processes-using-drift-expanding-test [Accessed 19 March 2021].

Funding awards:

KTP Grant number: 8747 (Oct 2011-Oct 2014), GBP 94,936.00

4. Details of the impact

Markets directly influenced by research activities

Rautomead is an established supplier of unique equipment in the continuous casting, wire, and cable industry, with a global reputation for developing and providing equipment to produce high-quality materials. Target customers for the products developed under the aegis of this impact case study included a number of leading Japanese, European and Chinese wire and cable providers. The companies will pay and engage to enhance their market position and/or develop new markets. In particular, Rautomead’s ability to manufacture products to satisfy the demand generated by developments in the electric vehicle industry made it an attractive proposition for customers.

The work with UoD allowed Rautomead to reliably and efficiently verify the uniqueness and quality of new machines, technology and processes for its customers across the world.

Since working with UoD, access to research skills has opened new market opportunities - particularly in Japan, where technical expertise and detail are especially valued; it has also enabled Rautomead to provide a known, evidenced and proven solution allowing them to increase the margins for their global equipment sales [E1].

This has been especially valuable in commercial negotiations, where the balance of technical risk, and hence leverage for customer discount has moved significantly towards Rautomead’s favour. In one case this led to an improved gross margin capability in the region of £200k over their previous similar projects. Considering that Rautomead sell between 5-10 machines per year, Rautomead estimate that this R&D partnership is impacting their bottom line somewhere between £1-2M per year [E1].

Improved production lead times

Equipment sales are often underpinned by Rautomead performing ‘casting-trials’, where a quantity of material is cast, usually for the first time, as a means of proving both product and process capability. The research has enabled Rautomead to provide their customers with material characterisation information from casting trials, something they were not able to do previously, but which is of significant value to the customer and which feeds into subsequent process optimisation and equipment design modification [E1].

As a direct result of this work, the production lead time has been reduced by 25%, leading to time and material resource savings valued at £180,000 (as in the example of Cu-Zn alloy used in robot welding). According to Rautomead, the company’s culture has altered in respect of the evaluation of untested alloys, leading to “ a considerable reduction in numbers of costly trials performed” [E1] .

Another specific scientific example of the impact pursued through this approach is the recent identification of adverse chemical reactions of a nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) alloy that is used in gas turbine blade manufacture. The existing (boron based) casting die at Rautomead prevented its casting, hence a further investigation of alternative casting die materials to enable its casting (Ca-ZrO₃) was identified. This has led to considerable saving in time and material resources in trials [E1].

Enhanced casting quality/yield

The UoD casting expertise and analytical skills has enabled Rautomead to advance their technical capabilities [R1-R3]. Enhancements include improving casting speed for oxygen-free-Cu (OFCu) rod used in data communication applications and particle accelerators, by identifying optimum conditions for increased casting yield and high quality [R2]. Since working with UoD, over the last 5 – 8 years the manufacturing yield of OFCu at Rautomead has approximately doubled (from 2.5 m/min to 5 m/min) enabling greater volumes of cast rod at reduced equipment costs [E1].

Development of new products and services

Since working with the UoD, Rautomead has improved its evidence-based materials characterisation capability, allowing Rautomead to leverage technical innovations from its other R&D activities. This has led to the knowledge on the casting of new alloys to increase Rautomead’s offerings (e.g., alloys such as CuMg, CuSn and CuAg). Key examples include high value alloys Cu-Cr-Zr and Cu-Zr, which display high electrical conductivity and post-processing material strengthening [R2] and have a wide range of applications, e.g. as trolley wire within electric trains [E1].

The work has contributed to a new piece of equipment which to date has resulted in 2 machine sales of this machine variant to Japanese customers (valued at €954,000; Date: 2016), and with a projected future sale of more than 10 machines over the next 2-3 years. Other examples include Pb-brass alloy used in corrosion resistance renewables (valued at €538,000 machine sale to Korea; Date: 2017), and Al-bronze alloy for sub-sea applications (valued at €1,400,000 machine sale to Spain; Date: 2017) [E1].

New company offerings to customers

Rautomead are now able to provide substantial material characterisation both during and after the actual trial-casting process. This has provided a significant impact to the competitive position for the company and its international image which includes:

Advancement of the casting-trial process offered to customers due to improved characterisation techniques employed at UoD;
Improved ‘product plus material characterisation analysis’ offering by Rautomead to customers, enabling significantly stronger technical and commercial selling of processing equipment;
Enhanced technical image of the company within the market, as a company who can provide a proven and trustworthy solution to its customers, and considerable publicity through dissemination of the research by Rautomead at Trade Shows (e.g. International Foundry Trade Fair with Technical Forum (GIFA) that is globally attended by industrial experts and equipment supplies from across the casting/foundry industry, and Wire Association International Global Continuous Casting Forum - Atlanta, USA – that is a forum for professionals within continuous casting technology to meet and exchange innovative ideas.

The drive to improve casting ability further has led to the continued investment of a new KTP with UoD [Grant Number: 11042, Feb. 2018 – Feb. 2020] on the development of bespoke modelling and simulation tools into the design process for continuous casting machines, and a new part-time PhD studentship (2016-2022), focussing on using the modelling and simulation tools to address the demand for low weight copper alloy wiring for the rapidly evolving automotive, aerospace and high speed rail markets.

In summary, the global reach of the partnership is evidenced by the number and diversity of machine sales across the world within the REF period, covering Americas, the Far East, Asia and Europe. The R&D collaboration between Rautomead and UoD has grown significantly, with ongoing links in provision of two Technology Support Agreements, investment in student projects at PhD and MSc levels, placements and visits to and with Rautomead, the employment of additional UoD graduates by the company (Rautomead have increased their permanent staff by 10% since 2015), and the aforementioned new KTP with UoD. This partnership has been, and will continue to be, of key strategic importance to the parties [E1].

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