Impact case study database

Limited water resources of variable quality present a significant hazard to public health and wellbeing, the environment and its ecosystem services and food security. This hazard is particularly acute in arid regions of the world impacted by mining, where limited water resources may be prioritised for mineral extraction, processing and waste disposal, and then re-enter the natural environment in a highly degraded state. Unfortunately, for Bolivia, it has a large number of these hazard hotspots, exemplified by the Río Pilcomayo basin and many drainage systems on the Bolivian Altiplano, which have been negatively impacted by centuries of poorly regulated mining activity resulting in heavy metal contamination of soils and waters. UCL–Birkbeck research on the impacts of mining has resulted in improvements in water resource management in Bolivia and subsequently in tailings risk management in Chile and the UK. The work has benefitted indigenous communities, government and non-government bodies and business, and has enhanced UK international relations in science and innovation.

Building indigenous community resilience to reduce water quality risk in Bolivia and positioning the UK as a key science, innovation and research partner with Bolivia

The Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD) operates one of the largest aid networks in the world and works with in-country partners to alleviate poverty and suffering in developing countries. CENDA is a key partner in Bolivia and has supported indigenous peasant communities for over 30 years. Of its four thematic areas, community water management was initiated in 2012, as a consequence of collaboration with UCL–Birkbeck researchers ( S1). It became firmly established in 2014 with a community water monitoring programme in the Poopó and Antequera river basins (combined area of 335 km²) in the Poopó and Pazña municipalities of the Department of Oruro. In these basins, unregulated tin, silver, lead and zinc mining and waste disposal has occurred since the 16^th century affecting the quality and availability of water, which puts the survival of 12,000 indigenous peasant people at risk ( S2). The underpinning research carried out by UCL–Birkbeck researchers informed CENDA that only 2% of waters sampled were suitable for direct human consumption and it provided essential evidence of the causes and extent of contamination ( S1, S3). In 2015, CENDA published the findings of the UCL–Birkbeck research online, which has been viewed more than 1186 times, and also submitted the findings to the Bolivia Vice Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, which then identified the Poopó and Antequera river basins as priorities for monitoring, because of the contamination of water by mining ( S3).

The underpinning research from UCL–Birkbeck led to the development of a uniquely versatile and qualitative tool for water quality hazard assessment—the CWQHR. The tool is specifically designed to be locally relevant and to be understood and used by community members and environmental and health managers on the Bolivian Altiplano and similar environments elsewhere. Unlike existing indices at the time, the CWQHR is applicable in areas affected by mining or natural contamination and encompasses all aspects of water use, including potable, agricultural, ecological and recreational uses, and broader environmental aspects. It also enables recommendations to be made about the level of treatment required for specific uses of water. Providing this tool and educating members of local communities in water monitoring and hazards, resulted in their active participation in water monitoring activities, understanding health risk and making informed decisions about water use ( S1). Commenting on the benefits of the CWQHR tool and the underpinning water quality data, CENDA stated that most importantly these “provided the hard evidence to enable the communities to stand up for their water rights” ( S1) and this had three key outcomes. Firstly, “communities now have volunteer water monitors and have been able to self-organise and find their own solutions to the water problem by managing the uses of water according to its quality and availability, greatly aided by the CWQHR” ( S1). Secondly, “active coordination was achieved with the Vice Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, and the Autonomous Municipal Governments of Poopó and Pazña–Antequera” ( S1). This consolidated a water monitoring and surveillance system in each of the two river basins ( S1, S3), delivering to the Bolivia National Watershed Plan ( S3). Thirdly, the Integral Health Centre of Poopó, through its Community and Intercultural Family Health Programme, took responsibility for reporting the quality of the water. This led to the Autonomous Municipal Government of Poopó installing chlorination and filtration systems to improve water quality for the communities, thus ensuring they had access to more water of better quality ( S4).

Towards the end of 2019, 200 families had directly benefitted from improved water management and 1,400 indirectly in the Poopó and Pazña–Antequera municipalities ( S2). The community water monitoring has been replicated in other locations in Bolivia: on the Altiplano at Coro Coro (projected population of about 9500) and along the Amazonian Río Rocha ( S2) (that flows through the city of Cochabamba and has more than 1,400,000 people living in its 3700 km² basin, which is equivalent to 12% of the country’s population). This has helped to ensure communities have greater access to potable water. This has all been possible, thanks to the UCL–Birkbeck research that “ strengthened the capacities of the researchers at CENDA” ( S1).

In June 2016, the British Embassy in La Paz showcased the UCL–Birkbeck research in Bolivia in a special supplement of La Razon (the leading newspaper in La Paz) and via the Embassy’s Facebook page. This publication reached approximately 50,000 readers and its purpose was “to project the UK as a good commercial partner for Bolivia and a leader in different prosperity areas, including the UK’s academic capabilities for innovation and collaboration in the mining sector” ( S5); the UCL–Birkbeck research “in mined areas on the Bolivian Altiplano provided an excellent example in this regard” ( S5). Subsequently, the British Embassy in La Paz “intensified its efforts to strengthen the science and research relationship between the UK and Bolivia and generate a greater amount of academic links between both countries. The Vice-president of Bolivia visited the UK in February 2019 and signed an agreement with the British Embassy in Bolivia to that effect. The success and positive impact of projects such as [that undertaken by UCL–Birkbeck on the Altiplano] has been vital in positioning the UK as a key partner for Bolivia in terms of science and innovation, leading to this agreement” ( S5).

Enhancing capacities of government and business in Chile and the UK to monitor, model and reduce tailings disaster risk

Mining is one of the key priorities of the UK Department for International Trade (DIT), particularly in South America through the British Embassy in Chile. The DIT encourages and promotes UK research and commercial know-how in mining in order to attract foreign sources of business for the UK. Since 2015, the impact of the research in Bolivia has evolved to generate profound impacts for tailings risk understanding and management, which have benefitted the DIT and Mining Ministry of Chile, and created new business for CGG in the UK.

In Chile in December 2015, Edwards presented the UCL–Birkbeck research and community water monitoring programme in Bolivia to the Mining Minister of Chile and the British Ambassador to Chile ( S6). This resulted in the Minister inviting Edwards and the British Embassy to collaborate with her ministry, through SERNAGEOMIN (the National Service of Geology and Mining), to explore ways to reduce the risk from mine tailings in Chile. This “ enabled the Embassy to greatly enhance its engagement with the Mining Ministry” and resulted in the Minister requesting “tailings be identified as a priority theme in the 2016 UK Cross-Government Prosperity Fund call for Chile, which they were” ( S6). Through this competitive call, the Foreign & Commonwealth Office awarded Edwards GBP114,000 for the project “Promoting Sustainable Mining in Chile: Building Capacity in Mine Tailings Hazard Management” and subsequently, in 2017, GBP23,500 from the Global Britain Fund for the project “Tailings Risk Analysis and Management in the Central Zone of Chile and Associated Research, Training and Commercial Opportunities” ( S6). There were high impact results from these projects for SERNAGEOMIN in Chile and CGG in the UK.

Under Chile Supreme Decree No. 248 of 2007, it is a legal requirement for every mining operation in the country to report the dangerous distance, which is the distance tailings would flow should a tailings dam fail. Between 1915 and 2010 in Chile, 80% of the 38 reported tailings dam incidents were caused by earthquakes. As a consequence and at the request of SERNAGEOMIN within the agreement of the Prosperity Fund project, the UCL Hazard Centre developed a physical model to generate scenarios for earthquake-induced failures of tailings storage facilities and the subsequent run-out flow distance of tailings and the area they could inundate. For SERNAGEOMIN, the model “remains the most comprehensive, rigorous and advanced methodology available” ( S7) and the “advanced knowledge of the values calculated with [the UCL model] has prompted mining companies to make serious efforts to assess the distance by their own methods” ( S7). Moreover, commenting on proposed new national tailings regulations, SERNAGEOMIN stated that the “pioneering work to model the area of inundation has been pivotal in developing the proposed new regulations regarding the safety and management of tailings storage facilities in Chile; we have suggested to forcibly ask the mining companies to inform affected area (as your results show), in addition to the dangerous distance” ( S7). The model also enables assessment of potential human, infrastructural and environmental damages from a tailings inundation that “provides unique critical information for SERNAGEOMIN, which must present such information to public authorities for purposes that include informing territorial polices and urban planning, and reducing potential tailings disaster risk” ( S7).

CGG is a global geoscience technology leader employing some 4,000 people worldwide. The impact on business and development for them came from UCL Hazard Centre research and expertise on tailings dam failures in Chile being applied to one that occurred at Cadia Mine in Australia in March 2018. The Cadia study used Earth observation data to retrospectively forecast the failure and “resulted in significant exposure and business for CGG” ( S8). The study became a catalyst “for CGG formally marketing its satellite remote sensing capabilities under a new brand called ‘MineScope’. This has become a leading and renowned service in the [mining] sector and has been the driver for significant growth for CGG; we saw an up-tick in revenue during 2020 and have been perfectly placed during the COVID-19 pandemic to support clients with remote mine site intelligence. This significant increase in commercial demand resulted in CGG establishing a new business line in Minerals & Mining in October 2020” ( S8).

UCL’s research into arsenic pollution of groundwater and the hydrodynamics of the Bengal Aquifer System in Bangladesh has had significant impacts on policy, practice and public health security in Bangladesh, 2014-2020. UCL’s research has guided the development and refinement of national policy on groundwater pumping in response to the groundwater arsenic crisis in Bangladesh and has underpinned practical approaches adopted by the Department for Public Health Engineering (DPHE) and the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) towards arsenic mitigation and groundwater monitoring. This has led to improved public health security and security of access to safe water supplies across the region. Key UCL research findings have been shared widely with stakeholders beyond academia, partly as a natural outcome of the collaborative nature of the research, to which Bangladesh government departments contributed through provision of access and data. The reach of the impact was extended by Burgess co-convening successive national conferences and workshops in Bangladesh (2013, 2014, 2017 and 2020). Furthermore, Burgess was interviewed on BBC ‘Science in Action’ (25/6/2017), broadcasted via the BBC World Service platform (weekly viewers 350,000,000) ( S1). Globally, the research has contributed to the implementation of UNICEF policies relating to investigation and mitigation of arsenic contamination and to water resource security assessments by the World Bank. In India, UCL’s research has influenced the development of national guidance for groundwater monitoring under the National Hydrology Project.

UNICEF policy and directives on arsenic pollution, and implementation of World Bank assessments

UNICEF has been a leading international provider and facilitator of mitigating actions responding to the arsenic crisis in Southeast Asia. The organisation has adopted UCL’s explanation of the underlying processes and causes of groundwater arsenic in the Bengal Basin as the standard paradigm for understanding arsenic pollution in alluvial aquifers worldwide ( S2). UCL’s research provided fundamental support for UNICEF’s assessment of global health impacts of groundwater arsenic, which underpins its development of policies and directives for its country offices. By demonstrating that the existing state of contamination in Bangladesh was both predictable and manageable, UCL’s research notably facilitated UNICEF’s proposals for rational and effective responses ( S2, S3), which have continued to be implemented throughout the period 2014-2020. Significant projects supported by UNICEF and the World Bank since 2014, grounded in those proposals, include implementation of the Bangladesh Government’s Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) 15-year water supply and sanitation ‘Sector Development Plan’ 2011-2025 ( S4, S5). UNICEF Bangladesh’s former Water and Environmental Sanitation Specialist stated: “UCL’s arsenic programme [has] continued, to a significant degree, to define the research and policy agenda” ( S2). Separately, UCL research supported the World Bank's 2019 assessment of water security in Pakistan ( S6, S7), enabling a comprehensive review of groundwater depletion and identifying pollution as the greatest long-term risk to groundwater sustainability, with UCL’s contribution acknowledged by the World Bank Senior Water Resources Management Specialist for South Asia ( S8).

Guiding Bangladesh government policy development

The DPHE Policy Support Unit leads the development of government policy in the water supply and sanitation sector in Bangladesh. The Dhaka workshops “Deep groundwater in Bangladesh: UCL research in support of policy development” (January 2013), and “Groundwater monitoring in the Bengal Basin: research strategies and their policy implications” (November 2014), co-convened by Burgess for UCL, with Dhaka University and the DPHE-PSU, were attended by representatives of the DPHE, the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation, the Geological Survey of Bangladesh, the Water Resources Policy Organisation, and the donor (including UNICEF and WaterAid) and NGO communities ( S9). The advisory “Bengal Deep Groundwater Statement 2014, Deep Groundwater in Bangladesh - a vital source of water” ( S9), co-authored by the Workshops’ attendees, is acknowledged by the DPHE to have influenced their policy decisions ( S5) towards promoting the use of deep groundwater for water supply. The statement promotes deep groundwater as a long-term secure water source to mitigate the effects of arsenic and salinity in southern Bangladesh, identifying seven points of consensus around which policy should be framed, and making recommendations for extension of the national groundwater monitoring infrastructure. The DPHE Superintending Engineer confirms that “The outcomes [of UCL research] continue to help shape our policies and practices towards deep groundwater pumping across the southern Bangladesh” ( S5).

Informing arsenic mitigation programmes

The DPHE is the Bangladesh government authority with principal responsibility for arsenic mitigation through provision of safe water supplies. UCL research has been used by the Arsenic Management Division of the DPHE to develop deep groundwater pumping as a mitigation strategy ( S5). Decisions on the optimum depth of arsenic mitigation wells in the DPHE 2011-2025 WASH Sector Development Plan ( S4) were underpinned by UCL research on the spatial and depth-distribution of the arsenic source, and the hydraulic structure of the Bengal aquifer system. The Sector Development Plan describes national strategy for the investment of approximately USD20,000,000,000 in the water, sanitation and health (WASH) sector, of which approximately USD1,750,000,000 has been managed by DPHE over the period 2014-2020 ( S5). The DPHE Superintending Engineer acknowledges “the very significant impact your department’s [UCL Earth Sciences] research has had in the mitigation of the groundwater arsenic crisis in Bangladesh” ( S5).

Consensus framework for improving public health security

Deep groundwater in Bangladesh is free of excessive arsenic. The implementation of deep groundwater pumping strategies by DPHE between 2014 and 2020, through the 2011-2025 WASH Sector Development Plan ( S4), informed by UCL research ( S5, S9), is estimated to have reduced arsenic exposure – thereby enhancing health, welfare and quality of life – among a combined total of some 5,000,000 people across southern Bangladesh ( S5). Public health security has also been protected by the UCL research finding that arsenic pollution in Bangladesh is natural, and not caused by pumping for irrigation ( R1). This finding has helped underpin the maintenance of food-grain self-sufficiency in the country since 2000 to the present day ( S2). In 1998, there were demands both within civil society and at ministerial level for a ban on groundwater irrigation, then thought to be the cause of arsenic pollution. UCL research since 2000 catalysed and informed public debate about the issue, supporting counter-demands that ensured the continuation of groundwater irrigation. The enduring impact of this reversal is affirmed by the former UNICEF’s Bangladesh Water and Environmental Sanitation Specialist, who notes that UCL research “ created a consensus conceptual framework for understanding the problem and, in particular, quashing demands for a blanket ban on groundwater irrigation”, and “the overall impact of tubewell irrigation continues to this day to have a massive net benefit in terms of maintaining food-grain self-sufficiency in Bangladesh and India” ( S2).

Influence on groundwater monitoring practice

The BWDB is the Bangladesh government authority with responsibility for monitoring the quality and quantity of the groundwater resources nationally. McArthur’s research findings on the rate of groundwater flux at the arsenic source regions, and Burgess’s research on the rate of migration of arsenic towards pumping wells ( R4, R5), alerted BWDB ( S10) and UNICEF ( S2) to the requirements and timescales for groundwater monitoring. Burgess’s identification of the effects of aquifer poroelasticity ( R6) further alerted the BWDB to requirements for expansion of the national groundwater monitoring infrastructure. The research findings also influenced the BWDB’s approach to groundwater monitoring, in particular regarding the security of deep groundwater. It also informed their expansion of the national groundwater monitoring network, including 69 new monitoring points since 2019 [and continuing] and 905 piezometers selected for automation ( S10). BWDB continues to appraise the design of its national deep groundwater monitoring programme in light of UCL research, most recently through consultation at the UCL-convened workshops “Aquifer poroelasticity in Bangladesh: observations, modelling and implications for groundwater resources monitoring” (February 2017), and “Implications of aquifer poroelasticity for groundwater levels: what groundwater managers in Bangladesh need to know” (January 2020), both in Dhaka. According to the BWDB Director [of Ground Water Hydrology], “Over the past two decades…excellent fundamental research of the [UCL Earth Sciences] Department…helped the BWDB develop its approach to groundwater investigation and monitoring. At the 2017 and 2020 Workshops in Dhaka, guiding principles for groundwater monitoring in Bangladesh were proposed and re-affirmed by the wider community of…water managers in Bangladesh, leading to installation of clustered [monitoring] wells at 69 new locations all over the country…and 905 piezometers…selected for automation” ( S10). In India, UCL research on poroelasticity has influenced the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), through a Guideline document accepted by the National Hydrology Project in India being supplied to all State groundwater agencies ( S2).

Professor Oelkers and his research group at UCL – based in the Department of Earth Sciences – conducted research in the field of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and the technology to capture and store CO₂ and H₂S through the mineralisation of basaltic rocks (CarbFix). This innovative technology has influenced policymakers and generated a plethora of impacts worldwide through commercial implementation in Iceland, Turkey, Italy and Germany, with strong environmental impact via direct capture of CO₂ from the atmosphere. Subsequent worldwide media coverage has improved public understanding of CCS and CarbFix as a solution against climate change.

Offset carbon emission for power plants in Iceland

Although Iceland is known for its clean environment, its per capita carbon emissions are high due to the large amount of mineral processing that occurs in the country. As the first industrial scale carbon mineralisation project in the world, CarbFix technology has proved its success in offsetting carbon emission for power plants since its launch in 2013. At the Hellisheiði Power Plant, the third-largest geothermal power station in the world, CarbFix has captured approximately 95,000t CO₂ and H₂S between 2016 and 2020. At current capturing capacity, 33% of the CO₂ and 75% of the H₂S emissions (or 12,000t of CO₂ and 7,000t of H₂S) from the plant are being re-injected annually ( S1).

The implementation of CarbFix technology at the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station, the second-largest geothermal power station in Iceland, doubled the amount of CO₂ and H₂S being reinjected at the site. The power station is expected to reach carbon neutrality by 2030, 10 years earlier than planned ( S1).

A multi-million cost-saving gas storage solution

The cost per tonne of gas captured and stored is approximately USD30 with CarbFix; this corresponds to a saving of USD22 to USD60 per tonne compared to the costs of industry-standard CO₂ storage methods, and a saving of USD270 to USD570/t for sulphur storage ( S1). Such financial saving makes CarbFix the most economical carbon and sulphur storage solution in the world today. As stated by the CEO of Reykjavik Energy, “the company has saved ISK3,250,000,000 (approximately GBP23,500,000) with the implementation of CarbFix at the Hellisheiði Power Plant between 2016 to 2020” ( S2).

The initial success of implementing CarbFix technology at the power stations has led to Reykjavik Energy (Iceland) launching CarbFix as a subsidiary to exploit its financial and environmental benefits. The company was officially launched in 2019 and employs five specialists (FTE: 5). The CEO of CarbFix commented on the importance of Oelkers’ research to the company’s success: “Eric [Oelkers] and UCL Earth Science Department have played an essential role in the development, validation and academic acceptance of CarbFix. […] CarbFix would not be possible without this input” ( S3). In addition, four new industrial sites across Turkey, Italy, Germany and Iceland have adopted CarbFix technology with four jobs generated (FTE: 4) across these sites ( S4).

Amphos21, a consulting firm that provides services for CO₂ storage verification after injection by CarbFix also benefited from directly research collaboration with Oelkers. Between 2013 and 2020, Amphos21 generated additional funding to recruit specialists (FTE: 3) and increased its annual revenue in EUR85,000 (for the period 2010-2020) ( S5).

Underpinning the development of climate change policies

CarbFix technology is an effective method against global warming caused by fossil fuel emissions from power plants. The Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was “impressed by the CarbFix injection method, which greatly increased the safety of geological carbon storage compared to conventional supercritical or mineral storage of CO₂” ( S6).

Project CarbFix2, a collaboration between Reykjavik Energy and international partners, aims to produce the first ever negative-emission carbon storage solution via direct capture of CO₂ from the atmosphere using both freshwater and seawater ( S7). The former President of Iceland commented that the “launch of the Climeworks Direct Air Capture plant at the CarbFix site is ‘revolutionary’ for the climate fight” ( S7). In April 2019, CarbFix2 project received the National Energy Globe Award Iceland, one of the most prestigious environmental awards, the goal of which is “to present successful sustainable projects to a broad audience, for many of our environmental problems already have good, feasible solutions” ( S7).

In January 2019, the Project Manager of CarbFix gave an invited presentation on CarbFix as a solution in the fight against climate change to the Prime Ministers and Ministers of the Nordic countries during the Nordic countries Climate Meeting in Helsinki. During this meeting, Prime Ministers signed the ‘ Declaration of Nordic Carbon Neutrality’, in which they emphasised that the Nordic countries have the political will and technical solutions to take a global lead against climate change ( S8). In Iceland, the pledge led to larger collaboration projects between the government and industry aimed at expanding CarbFix to help Iceland achieve carbon neutrality by 2040. In 2019, as part of the initiative, Reykjavík Energy, market leaders in the Aluminium and Silicon Industry (including Elkem, Fjarðarál, PCC and Rio Tinto), and government Ministries (including the Prime Minister of Iceland, the Ministry for the Environment and Natural Resources, the Ministry of Industries and Innovation and the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture) signed a Letter of Intent to investigate CarbFix as a viable option to safely store CO₂ emissions from other large emitters in Iceland ( S8). A year later, a working group was tasked with drafting a bill of law aiming to ensure that CO₂ storage via CarbFix process complies with EU legislation and is included in EU Emissions Trading System ( S8).

Inspiration for artists and new generations of scientists

Results of this successful CCS technology originating from UCL research inspired and interested people of all ages globally. CarbFix was featured by over 400 media sources worldwide, including the New York Times, The Guardian, CNBC, Forbes, Japan Times, Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, The Economist, Wired, MIT Technology Review, The Australian, Outside, the Conversation, Phys.org, BBC, Euronews, PBS Newshour, and National Geographic [I]. Most recently, the research has been featured in the latest Sir David Attenborough documentary, Climate Change – The Facts, which was broadcast on BBC One on 18 April 2019 and has been watched on various platforms by 3,560,000 people, with many viewers defining it as a “wake up call” ( S9).

Following the worldwide media exposure, a teacher from New York (New York, US) arranged a teleconference for her 7^th grade students to meet geologists on the CarbFix team, with the support of the ‘Skype A Scientist’ initiative ( S10). Additionally, an 11-year old girl from San Antonio (Texas, US) was inspired by the CarbFix project when she visited Iceland in 2016. The CarbFix team helped her design a small-scale experiment using basaltic rocks from both Iceland and Texas. The girl was awarded the first prize at the Science Fair at her school in February 2017 ( S10).

The core that was drilled into the CarbFix pilot injection site in 2014 was part of the Infinite Next exhibition at the Living Art Museum in Reykjavík, specifically in the work entitled Ten Thousand and One Years of the artist Bjarki Bragason (of 7 participating artists in total). According to the Managing Director of the Living Art Museum, the exhibition “has been viewed by 600 visitors until 19^th June 2016”, and it was “well received, by other artists, art professionals, and students aged between 18-25”. The exhibition was featured in the Icelandic newspaper Morgunblaðið, in the Visual Arts radio programme Víðsjá, and in Artzine – an online art magazine. This work was also presented at exhibitions in Los Angeles (USA), Auckland (NZ) and Vienna (AU) ( S10).